Water quality index and human health risk assessment for heavy metals in groundwater of Bedkot Municipality, Kanchanpur, Nepal: A cross-sectional study

Authors

  • Sagar Hamal School of Engineering, Far Western University, Nepal
  • Richa Bist School of Engineering, Far Western University, Nepal
  • Bhaskar Pant School of Engineering, Far Western University, Nepal
  • Bikash Adhikari School of Science, Kathmandu University, Nepal

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2281-4485/21769

Keywords:

tube wells, groundwater quality, public health risks, heavy metals, water quality indices

Abstract

This study assessed groundwater quality and associated human health risks in Bedkot Municipality, Nepal, where 68.6% of households rely on tube wells (TWs). Twenty-three shallow TWs water samples (urban:10, semi-urban:6, and rural:7) were analyzed for physiochemical parameters (pH, temperature, turbidity, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, total hardness, calcium, ammonium, nitrate, total iron (Fe), and total arsenic (As)), following standard methods and assessed using the water quality index (WQI) and USEPA’s human health risk assessment (HHRA). Results revealed slightly acidic freshwater, with hardness varying (hard to very hard: urban/semi-urban, and moderately hard to very hard: rural). WQI classified 80% of urban, 90% of semi-urban, and 100% of rural samples as “excellent” for drinking, with none deemed unsuitable (WQI > 300). However, health risks emerged: children in all areas faced non-carcinogenic risks (Hazard Index, HI: 1.5–6.31). Some urban adults also showed risks (HI: 0.73–2.98), whereas no such risks were identified for adults in semi-urban and rural areas (HI: 0.73–0.95). Carcinogenic risks from As ingestion were significant for children (7E-04– 2.5E-03) and adults (3.3E-04– 1.2E-03) in urban, as well as children (7E-04– 9E-04) and adults (3.3E-04– 4.2E-04) in semi-urban and rural areas, exceeding acceptable thresholds (1E-06–1E-04). Children were 2.12 times more susceptible to non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks than adults. These findings can guide sustainable groundwater quality management strategies in the region.

References

ADIMALLA N., QIAN H. (2019). Groundwater quality evaluation using water quality index (WQI) for drinking purposes and human health risk (HHR) assessment in an agricultural region of Nanganur, south India. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 176:153–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.03.066

AHMAD S.A., BANDARANAYAKE D., KHAN A.W., HADI S.A., UDDIN G., HALIM M.A. (1997) Arsenic contamination in groundwater and arsenicosis in Bangladesh. International Journal of Environmental Health Research,7(4):271–276. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09603129773724

AKTER T., JHOHURA F.T., AKTER F., CHOWDHURY T.R., MISTRY S. K., DEY D., RAHMAN, M. (2016) Water Quality Index for measuring drinking water quality in rural Bangladesh: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, 35(1):4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41043-016-0041-5

ALTAHAN M.F., ALI A.G., HATHOOT A.A., AZZEM M.A. (2023) Modified electrode decorated with silver as a novel non-enzymatic sensor for the determination of ammonium in water. Scientific Reports, 13(1):16861. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-43616-7

APHA - American Public Health Association (2012) Standard methods for the examination of water and waste-water (22nd ed.). ISBN 978-0875530130

ARYAL M. (2024). An analysis of drinking water quality parameters to achieve sustainable development goals in rural and urban areas of Besisahar, Lamjung, Nepal. World Water Policy, 10(1):297–323. https://doi.org/10.1002/wwp2.12073

BELEW A.A., BESHA A.T., BELETE A.A. (2024) Determination of heavy metals and health risk assessment in drinking water in Jigjiga City, Ethiopia. Discover Environment, 2(1):6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44274-024-00071-z

BODRUD-DOZA M.D., ISLAM A.T., AHMED F., DAS S., SAHA N., RAHMAN M.S. (2016) Characterization of groundwater quality using water evaluation indices, multivariate statistics and geostatistics in central Bangladesh. Water Science, 30(1):19–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsj.2016.05.001

BOHARA M.S. (2015) Physico-chemical and microbiolo-gical analysis of drinking water quality of Bhim Datta Muni-cipality of Kanchanpur District, Nepal. Nepal Journal of Science and Technology, 16(1):43–52. https://scholasticjournals.com/pdf/149528328220150822.pdf

DAHAL K., TIMALSINA K.P. (2020) Dimensions of land use change and implications in spatial planning of emerging town Bedkot Municipality, Kanchanpur District, Nepal. Geographical Journal of Nepal, 13, 185–200. https://doi.org/10.3126/gjn.v13i0.28158

EKAWATI C.J., WIDYANINGRUM B. (2023). Total hardness test on dug well water in Alak Village, Kupang City. Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA, 9(10), 8258–8262. https://doi.org/10.29303/jppipa.v9i10.4957

ENPHO - Environment and Public Health Organization (2022) SFD Report Bedkot Municipality, Nepal, 2022. https://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-5064-7-1662632757.pdf

GHIMIRE M., REGMI T., KAYASTHA S.P., BHUIYAN C. (2023) Groundwater quality and community health risk in Lalitpur Metropolitan City, Nepal–a geospatial analysis. Geocarto International, 38(1):2168069. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2023.2168069

GHOSH G.C., CHAKRABORTY T.K., SHEKDER N., TANIN T.A., HABIB A., ZAMAN S. (2023) Groundwater quality and human health risk assessment in urban and peri-urban regions of Jashore, Bangladesh. H2Open Journal, 6(4):576–587. https://doi.org/10.2166/h2oj.2023.081

GURUNG S., RAUT N., SHRESTHA S., GURUNG J., MAHARJAN B., SHRESTHA S. (2015) Assessment of groundwater quality in far western Kailali district, Nepal. Jacobs Journal of Hydrology, 1(1):1–9. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281344702_Assessment_of_groundwater_quality_in_Far_Western_Kailali_DistrictNepal

HOWLADAR M.F., ALNUMANBAKTH M.A., FARU-QUE M.O. (2018) An application of Water Quality Index (WQI) and multivariate statistics to evaluate the water quality around Maddhapara Granite Mining Industrial Area, Dinaj-pur, Bangladesh. Environmental Systems Research, 6(1):13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-017-0090-9

HU X., ZHANG Y., DING Z., WANG T., LIAN H., SUN Y., WU J. (2012) Bioaccessibility and health risk of arsenic and heavy metals (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn and Mn) in TSP and PM2.5 in Nanjing, China. Atmospheric Environment, 57:146–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.04.056

IBRAHIM M.N. (2019) Assessing groundwater quality for drinking purpose in Jordan: Application of water quality index. Journal of Ecological Engineering, 20(3):101–111. https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/99740

ISLAM A.R.M.T., AHMED N., BODRUD-DOZA M., CHU R. (2017) Characterizing groundwater quality ranks for drinking purposes in Sylhet district, Bangladesh, using entropy method, spatial autocorrelation index, and geostatistics. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24(34):26350–26374. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0254-1

ISLAM M.S., MOSTAFA M.G. (2023) Occurrence, source, and mobilization of iron, manganese, and arsenic pollution in shallow aquifer. Geofluids, 6628095. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/6628095

KAYASTHA S.P. (2015) Arsenic contamination in the deep and shallow groundwater of Bara District, Nepal. Crossing the Border: International Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 3(1):65–70. https://doi.org/10.3126/ctbijis.v3i1.14091

KRISHNA KUMAR S., LOGESHKUMARAN A., MAGESH N.S., GODSON P.S., CHANDRASEKAR N.(2015) Hydro-geochemistry and application of water quality index (WQI) for groundwater quality assessment, Anna Nagar, part of Chennai City, Tamil Nadu, India. Applied Water Science, 5(4):335–343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-014-0196-4

LIU J., GAO M., JIN D., WANG T., YANG J. (2020). Assessment of groundwater quality and human health risk in the aeolian-sand area of Yulin City, Northwest China. Exposure and Health, 12(4):671–680.https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-019-00326-8

MAHATO S., MAHATO A., KARNA P.K., BALMIKI N. (2018) Investigating aquifer contamination and groundwater quality in eastern Terai region of Nepal. BMC Research Notes, 11(1):1–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-018-3445-z

NAWAZ R., NASIM I., IRFAN A., ISLAM A., NAEEM A., GHANI N., ULLAH R. (2023) Water Quality Index and human health risk assessment of drinking water in selected urban areas of a Mega City. Toxics, 11(7):577. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11070577

NSO - National Statistics Office (2021) National Popula-tion and Housing Census 2021 (Vol. 39, Issue 1). ISBN 978-9937- 1-3221-3

OGAREKPE N.M., NNAJI C.C., OYEBODE O.J., EKPENYONG M. G., OFEM O.I., TENEBE I.T., ASITOK A.D. (2023). Groundwater quality index and potential human health risk assessment of heavy metals in water: A case study of Calabar metropolis, Nigeria. Environ-mental Nanotechnology, Monitoring and Management, 19: 100780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enmm.2023.100780

RAHEJA H., GOEL A., PAL M. (2024) Assessment of groundwater quality and human health risk from nitrate contamination using a multivariate statistical analysis. Journal of Water and Health, 22(2), 350–366.

https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2024.291

SAFO-ADU G. (2022) Water Quality Index Model Application in Evaluation of Groundwater Quality in a Waste Treatment Facility. International Journal of Sustainable Engineering, 15(1):286–298.https://doi.org/10.1080/19397038.2022.2146775

SHAIBUR M.R., HOWLADER M., AHMMED I., SAR WAR S., HUSSAM A. (2024) Water quality index and health risk assessment for heavy metals in groundwater of Kashiani and Kotalipara upazila, Gopalganj, Bangla-desh. Applied Water Science, 14(5):1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-024-02169-4

SHRESTHA R., ZHIHOU Z. (2024) Predictive Integrated Groundwater Quality Index in Central Terai of Nepal for Drinking and Agriculture Use: An Advanced Geospatial Analysis with Indices (EWQI, IWQI) and ANN Modelling. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3916964/v1

SUDARSHANA S., PREM K.S., ACHUT R. P., RAMESH K.S., MAHESH S., DIPESH R.P., PRAMOD K.Y., NARAYAN G.G., PAWAN R.S. (2019). Assessment of drinking water quality of Kathmandu Municipality Area, Kathmandu, Nepal in pre-monsoon season. Research Journal of Recent Sciences, 8(4):54-62. https://www.isca- me/ rjrs/archive/v8/i4/7.ISCA-RJRS-2019-029.pdf

SMITH A.H., HOPENHAYN-RICH C., BATES M.N., GOEDEN H. M., Hertz-Picciotto I., Duggan H.M., SMITH M.T. (1992) Cancer risks from arsenic in drinking water. Environmental Health Perspectives, 97:259–267. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.9297259

THAKUR J. K., THAKUR R.K., RAMANATHAN A.L., KUMAR M., SINGH S.K. (2010) Arsenic contamination of groundwater in Nepal—an overview. Water, 3(1): 1–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/w3010001

THIVYA C., CHIDAMBARAM S., THILAGAVATHI R., NEPOLIAN M., ADITHYA V.S. (2014) Evaluation of drinking water quality index (DWQI) and its seasonal variations in hard rock aquifers of Madurai District, Tamilnadu. International Journal of Advanced Geosciences, 2(2):48–52. http://doi.org/10.14419/ijag.v2i2.2294

TRIVEDY R.K., GOEL P.K. (1984) Chemical and biological methods for water pollution studies. Environmental Publications.

UPRETI B.N. (2001) Physiography and geology of Nepal and their bearing on the landslide problem. Landslide Hazard Mitigation in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas, 31–49. https://doi.org/10.53055/icimod.374

USEPA - United States Environmental Protection Agency (1999) A risk assessment–multi way exposure spread sheet calculation tool.

USEPA - United States Environmental Protection Agency (2004) Risk assessment guidance for superfund. Volume 1: Human health evaluation manual (Part E, Supplemental guidance for dermal risk assessment) (EPA/540/R/99/ 005). https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-09/do cuments/part_e_final_revision_10-03-07.pdf

VAROL S., DAVRAZ A. (2016) Evaluation of potential human health risk and investigation of drinking water quality in Isparta city center (Turkey). Journal of Water and Health, 14(3):471–488. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2015.187

WHO - World Health Organization (2017) Guidelines for drinking-water quality (4th ed.). ISBN 978-92-4-154995-0

WHO - World Health Organization (2022) Guidelines for drinking-water quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda. ISBN 978-92-4-004506-4

Downloads

Published

2025-06-05

How to Cite

Hamal, S., Bist, R., Pant, B., & Adhikari, B. (2025). Water quality index and human health risk assessment for heavy metals in groundwater of Bedkot Municipality, Kanchanpur, Nepal: A cross-sectional study. EQA - International Journal of Environmental Quality, 69, 73–86. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2281-4485/21769

Issue

Section

Articles